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README.md

[Back to Index Page]

Certified Kubernetes Administrator (CKA)

Preparation and study material for Certified Kubernetes Administrator exam v1.30.

Reasoning

After using Kubernetes in production for over a year now (both on-prem and AWS/EKS), I wanted to see what the CKA exam is all about.

Aliases

Keep it simple:

alias k=kubectl
alias do="--dry-run=client -o yaml"
alias now="--force --grace-period 0"

alias kc="kubectl config"
alias kcgc="kubectl config get-contexts"
alias kccc="kubectl config current-context"

Allowed Kubernetes documentation resources

CKA Environment

See https://docs.linuxfoundation.org/tc-docs/certification/tips-cka-and-ckad#cka-and-ckad-environment

There are six clusters (CKA) that comprise the exam environment, made up of varying numbers of containers, as follows:

Cluster Members CNI Description
k8s 1 master, 2 worker flannel k8s cluster
hk8s 1 master, 2 worker calico k8s cluster
bk8s 1 master, 1 worker flannel k8s cluster
wk8s 1 master, 2 worker flannel k8s cluster
ek8s 1 master, 2 worker flannel k8s cluster
ik8s 1 master, 1 base node loopback k8s cluster − missing worker node

At the start of each task you'll be provided with the command to ensure you are on the correct cluster to complete the task.

Command-like tools kubectl, jq, tmux, curl, wget and man are pre-installed in all environments.

CKA Exam Simulator

https://killer.sh/cka

Do not sit the CKA exam unless you get the perfect score and understand the solutions (regardless of the time taken to solve all questions).

CKA Simulator

Cluster Architecture, Installation and Configuration

Unless stated otherwise, all Kubernetes resources should be created in the cka namespace.

Provision underlying infrastructure to deploy a Kubernetes cluster

We have a six-node (three control planes and three worker nodes) Kubernetes homelab cluster running Rocky Linux already.

For the sake of this excercise, we will create a new two-node cluster, with one control plane and one worker node, using Ubuntu 20.04 LTS. It makes sense to use a Debian-based distribution here because we have a RHEL-based homelab cluster already.

Libvirt/KVM nodes:

  • srv37-master: 2 vCPUs, 4GB RAM, 16GB disk, 10.11.1.37/24
  • srv38-node: 2 vCPUs, 4GB RAM, 16GB disk, 10.11.1.38/24

Provision a KVM guest for the control plane using PXE boot:

virt-install \
  --connect qemu+ssh://[email protected]/system \
  --name srv37-master \
  --network bridge=br0,model=virtio,mac=C0:FF:EE:D0:5E:37 \
  --disk path=/var/lib/libvirt/images/srv37.qcow2,size=16 \
  --pxe \
  --ram 4096 \
  --vcpus 2 \
  --os-type linux \
  --os-variant ubuntu20.04 \
  --sound none \
  --rng /dev/urandom \
  --virt-type kvm \
  --wait 0

When asked for an OS, select Ubuntu 20.04 LTS Server option.

PXE boot menu

Provision a KVM guest for the worker node using PXE boot:

virt-install \
  --connect qemu+ssh://[email protected]/system \
  --name srv38-node \
  --network bridge=br0,model=virtio,mac=C0:FF:EE:D0:5E:38 \
  --disk path=/var/lib/libvirt/images/srv38.qcow2,size=16 \
  --pxe \
  --ram 4096 \
  --vcpus 2 \
  --os-type linux \
  --os-variant ubuntu20.04 \
  --sound none \
  --rng /dev/urandom \
  --virt-type kvm \
  --wait 0

Use Kubeadm to install a basic cluster

We will use kubeadm to install a Kubernetes v1.29 cluster. We will upgrade the cluster to v1.30 in the next chapter.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/setup/production-environment/container-runtimes/

Install container runtime on all nodes:

cat <<EOF | sudo tee /etc/modules-load.d/containerd.conf
overlay
br_netfilter
EOF

sudo modprobe overlay
sudo modprobe br_netfilter

cat <<EOF | sudo tee /etc/sysctl.d/99-kubernetes-cri.conf
net.bridge.bridge-nf-call-iptables  = 1
net.ipv4.ip_forward                 = 1
net.bridge.bridge-nf-call-ip6tables = 1
EOF

sudo sysctl --system

Install containerd on all nodes:

sudo apt-get update
sudo apt-get -y install apt-transport-https ca-certificates curl gnupg lsb-release

curl -fsSL https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu/gpg | sudo gpg --dearmor -o /usr/share/keyrings/docker-archive-keyring.gpg

echo \
  "deb [arch=$(dpkg --print-architecture) signed-by=/usr/share/keyrings/docker-archive-keyring.gpg] https://download.docker.com/linux/ubuntu \
  $(lsb_release -cs) stable" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/docker.list > /dev/null

sudo apt-get update
sudo apt-get -y install containerd.io

sudo mkdir -p /etc/containerd
containerd config default | sudo tee /etc/containerd/config.toml
sudo systemctl restart containerd

To use the systemd cgroup driver in /etc/containerd/config.toml with runc, set:

[plugins."io.containerd.grpc.v1.cri".containerd.runtimes.runc]
  ...
  [plugins."io.containerd.grpc.v1.cri".containerd.runtimes.runc.options]
    SystemdCgroup = true

sudo sed -i 's/            SystemdCgroup =.*/            SystemdCgroup = true/g' /etc/containerd/config.toml

Make sure to restart containerd:

sudo systemctl restart containerd

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/setup/production-environment/tools/kubeadm/create-cluster-kubeadm/

Install kubeadm, kubelet and kubectl (v1.29):

sudo mkdir -p -m 755 /etc/apt/keyrings
curl -fsSL https://pkgs.k8s.io/core:/stable:/v1.29/deb/Release.key | sudo gpg --dearmor -o /etc/apt/keyrings/kubernetes-apt-keyring-1.29.gpg

echo "deb [signed-by=/etc/apt/keyrings/kubernetes-apt-keyring-1.29.gpg] https://pkgs.k8s.io/core:/stable:/v1.29/deb/ /" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/kubernetes-1.29.list

sudo apt-get update
sudo apt-get install -y kubelet kubeadm kubectl
sudo apt-mark hold kubelet kubeadm kubectl
sudo systemctl enable kubelet

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/fr/docs/setup/production-environment/tools/kubeadm/create-cluster-kubeadm/#pod-network

Initialise the control plane node. Set pod network CIDR based on the CNI that you plan to install later:

  • Calico - 192.168.0.0/16
  • Flannel - 10.244.0.0/16
  • Weave Net - 10.32.0.0/12

We are going to use Flannel, hence 10.244.0.0/16.

sudo kubeadm init \
  --kubernetes-version "1.29.9" \
  --pod-network-cidr "10.244.0.0/16"

Configure kubectl access on the control plane:

mkdir -p $HOME/.kube
sudo cp -i /etc/kubernetes/admin.conf $HOME/.kube/config
sudo chown $(id -u):$(id -g) $HOME/.kube/config

Run the output of the init command on the worker node:

sudo kubeadm join 10.11.1.37:6443 --token "ktlb43.llip8nym905afakm" \
	--discovery-token-ca-cert-hash sha256:b3f1c31e2777bd54b3f7a797659a96072711809ae84e8c9be3fba449c8e32dd4

-1.29 Install a pod network to the cluster. You can choose one of the following: Calico, Flannel, Weave Net.

  • To install Calico, run the following:
kubectl apply -f "https://projectcalico.docs.tigera.io/manifests/calico.yaml"
  • To install Flannel (for Kubernetes v1.17+), run the following:
kubectl apply -f "https://raw.githubusercontent.com/flannel-io/flannel/master/Documentation/kube-flannel.yml"
  • To install Weave Net, run the following:
kubectl apply -f "https://cloud.weave.works/k8s/net?k8s-version=$(kubectl version | base64 | tr -d '\n')"

Check the cluster to make sure that all nodes are running and ready:

kubectl get nodes
NAME    STATUS   ROLES           AGE    VERSION
srv37   Ready    control-plane   14m    v1.29.9
srv38   Ready    <none>          102s   v1.29.9

How to add new worker nodes to the cluster?

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/reference/setup-tools/kubeadm/kubeadm-join/

Create a new token on the control plane:

kubeadm token create --print-join-command

The output will be something like this:

kubeadm join 10.11.1.37:6443 --token hh{truncated}g4 --discovery-token-ca-cert-hash sha256:77{truncated}28

Run the kubeadm join command on a new worker node that is to be added to the cluster.

Implement etcd backup and restore

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/administer-cluster/configure-upgrade-etcd/#backing-up-an-etcd-cluster

Install etcd client package on the control plane using a package manager (this may not always install the version of the package that you want):

sudo apt-get -y install etcd-client

Alternativelly:

ETCD_VER=v3.5.16
GITHUB_URL=https://github.com/etcd-io/etcd/releases/download
DOWNLOAD_URL=${GITHUB_URL}

mkdir -p /tmp/etcd-download-test
curl -fsSL ${DOWNLOAD_URL}/${ETCD_VER}/etcd-${ETCD_VER}-linux-amd64.tar.gz -o /tmp/etcd-${ETCD_VER}-linux-amd64.tar.gz
tar xzvf /tmp/etcd-${ETCD_VER}-linux-amd64.tar.gz -C /tmp/etcd-download-test --strip-components=1
rm -f /tmp/etcd-${ETCD_VER}-linux-amd64.tar.gz

/tmp/etcd-download-test/etcdctl version
etcdctl version: 3.5.16
API version: 3.5

Find paths of certificates and keys:

sudo egrep "cert-|key-|trusted-" /etc/kubernetes/manifests/etcd.yaml|grep -ve peer
    - --cert-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.crt
    - --client-cert-auth=true
    - --key-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.key
    - --trusted-ca-file=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt

Take a snapshot by specifying the endpoint and certificates:

sudo ETCDCTL_API=3 etcdctl \
  --endpoints=https://127.0.0.1:2379 \
  --cacert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt \
  --cert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.crt \
  --key=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.key \
  snapshot save "/root/etcd_backup_$(date +%F).db"

Do not use snapshot status command because it can alter the snapshot file and render it invalid.

Restore an etcd cluster from the snapshot. Identify the default data-dir:

sudo grep data-dir /etc/kubernetes/manifests/etcd.yaml
    - --data-dir=/var/lib/etcd

If any API servers are running in your cluster, you should not attempt to restore instances of etcd. Instead, follow these steps to restore etcd:

  • Stop all API server instances.
  • Restore state in all etcd instances.
  • Restart all API server instances.

Stop all control plane components:

cd /etc/kubernetes/manifests/
sudo mv ./*yaml ../

Make sure all control plane pods are NotReady:

sudo crictl pods | egrep "kube|etcd"

Restore the snapshot into a specific directory:

sudo ETCDCTL_API=3 etcdctl \
  --endpoints=https://127.0.0.1:2379 \
  --cacert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt \
  --cert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.crt \
  --key=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.key \
  --data-dir /var/lib/etcd_backup \
  snapshot restore "/root/etcd_backup_$(date +%F).db"

Tell etcd to use the new directory /var/lib/etcd_backup:

sudo sed -i 's/\/var\/lib\/etcd/\/var\/lib\/etcd_backup/g' /etc/kubernetes/etcd.yaml

Start all control plane components:

cd /etc/kubernetes/manifests/
sudo mv ../*yaml ./

Give it some time (up to several minutes) for etcd to restart.

Perform a version upgrade on a Kubernetes cluster using Kubeadm

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/administer-cluster/kubeadm/kubeadm-upgrade/

We will upgrade previously deployed Kubernetes cluster v1.29 to v1.30.

Set up Kubernetes repository for the new release:

sudo mkdir -p -m 755 /etc/apt/keyrings
curl -fsSL https://pkgs.k8s.io/core:/stable:/v1.30/deb/Release.key | sudo gpg --dearmor -o /etc/apt/keyrings/kubernetes-apt-keyring-1.30.gpg

echo "deb [signed-by=/etc/apt/keyrings/kubernetes-apt-keyring-1.30.gpg] https://pkgs.k8s.io/core:/stable:/v1.30/deb/ /" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/kubernetes-1.30.list

Upgrade the control plane:

sudo apt-mark unhold kubeadm && \
sudo apt-get update && \
sudo apt-get install -y kubeadm=1.30.1-1.1 && \
sudo apt-mark hold kubeadm

kubeadm version
sudo kubeadm upgrade plan
sudo kubeadm upgrade apply v1.30.1

kubectl drain srv37 --ignore-daemonsets

sudo apt-mark unhold kubelet kubectl && \
sudo apt-get install -y kubelet=1.30.1-1.1 kubectl=1.30.1-1.1 && \
sudo apt-mark hold kubelet kubectl

sudo systemctl daemon-reload
sudo systemctl restart kubelet
kubectl uncordon srv37

Upgrade the worker node:

sudo mkdir -p -m 755 /etc/apt/keyrings
curl -fsSL https://pkgs.k8s.io/core:/stable:/v1.30/deb/Release.key | sudo gpg --dearmor -o /etc/apt/keyrings/kubernetes-apt-keyring-1.30.gpg

echo "deb [signed-by=/etc/apt/keyrings/kubernetes-apt-keyring-1.30.gpg] https://pkgs.k8s.io/core:/stable:/v1.30/deb/ /" | sudo tee /etc/apt/sources.list.d/kubernetes-1.30.list
sudo apt-mark unhold kubeadm && \
sudo apt-get update && \
sudo apt-get install -y kubeadm=1.30.1-1.1 && \
sudo apt-mark hold kubeadm

sudo kubeadm upgrade node

kubectl drain srv38 --ignore-daemonsets

sudo apt-mark unhold kubelet kubectl && \
sudo apt-get install -y kubelet=1.30.1-1.1 kubectl=1.30.1-1.1 && \
sudo apt-mark hold kubelet kubectl

sudo systemctl daemon-reload
sudo systemctl restart kubelet
kubectl uncordon srv38

Verify the status of the cluster:

kubectl get nodes
NAME    STATUS   ROLES           AGE   VERSION
srv37   Ready    control-plane   38m   v1.30.1
srv38   Ready    <none>          33m   v1.30.1

Manage role based access control (RBAC)

Docs:

Exercise 1: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a new user called peasant and grant the user access to the Kubernetes cluster.
  2. Generate a private key peasant.key and CSR peasant.csr for the user.
  3. User should have permissions to get and list the following resources in the cka namespace: pods and services.
  4. Check API access using the auth can-i subcommand.

A few steps are required in order to get a normal user to be able to authenticate and invoke an API. First, this user must have a certificate issued by the Kubernetes cluster, and then present that certificate to the Kubernetes API.

Create a private key and a CSR using openssl:

openssl genrsa -out peasant.key 2048
openssl req -new -key peasant.key -out peasant.csr

Create a CertificateSigningRequest and submit it to a Kubernetes cluster:

cat peasant.csr | base64 | tr -d "\n"

cat > peasant-csr.yaml <<EOF
apiVersion: certificates.k8s.io/v1
kind: CertificateSigningRequest
metadata:
  name: peasant
spec:
  request: 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
  signerName: kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver-client
  usages:
  - client auth
EOF

kubectl apply -f peasant-csr.yaml

Approve certificate signing request:

kubectl get csr
NAME      AGE   SIGNERNAME                            REQUESTOR          REQUESTEDDURATION   CONDITION
peasant   10s   kubernetes.io/kube-apiserver-client   kubernetes-admin   <none>              Pending

kubectl certificate approve peasant

Create a role and rolebinding:

kubectl create role peasant-role --resource=pods,svc --verb=get,list -n cka
kubectl create rolebinding peasant-role-binding --role=peasant-role --user=peasant -n cka

Verify:

kubectl auth can-i get pods --as=peasant -n cka
yes

kubectl auth can-i delete pods --as=peasant -n cka
no

kubectl auth can-i list svc --as=peasant -n cka
yes

kubectl auth can-i update svc --as=peasant -n cka
no

Exercise 2: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a new service account kubernetes-dashboard-sa.
  2. Create a cluster role kubernetes-dashboard-clusterrole that grants permissions get,list,watch to resources pods,nodes to API group metrics.k8s.io.
  3. Grant the service account access to the cluster by creating a cluster role binding kubernetes-dashboard-role-binding.

Create a service account:

kubectl create sa kubernetes-dashboard-sa -n cka

Create a cluser role:

kubectl create clusterrole kubernetes-dashboard-clusterrole \
  --verb=get,list,watch --resource=pods,nodes \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml | sed 's/- ""/- metrics.k8s.io/g' | kubectl apply -f -

Create a cluster role binding:

kubectl create clusterrolebinding kubernetes-dashboard-role-binding \
  --clusterrole=kubernetes-dashboard-clusterrole \
  --serviceaccount=cka:kubernetes-dashboard-sa

Manage a highly-available Kubernetes cluster

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/setup/production-environment/tools/kubeadm/high-availability/

A stacked HA cluster is a topology where the distributed data storage cluster provided by etcd is stacked on top of the cluster formed by the nodes managed by kubeadm that run control plane components. This is the default topology in kubeadm.

Stacked etcd topology

Create a kube-apiserver load balancer with a name that resolves to DNS. Install HAProxy and allow it to listen on kube-apiserver port 6443, configure firewall to allow inbound HAProxy traffic on kube-apiserver port 6443.

sudo apt-get -y install haproxy psmisc

Configure HAProxy /etc/haproxy/haproxy.cfg:

global
  log /dev/log  local0
  log /dev/log  local1 notice
  stats socket /var/lib/haproxy/stats level admin
  chroot /var/lib/haproxy
  user haproxy
  group haproxy
  daemon

defaults
  log global
  mode  http
  option  httplog
  option  dontlognull
        timeout connect 5000
        timeout client 50000
        timeout server 50000

frontend kubernetes
    bind 10.11.1.30:6443
    option tcplog
    mode tcp
    default_backend kubernetes-master-nodes

backend kubernetes-master-nodes
    mode tcp
    balance roundrobin
    option tcp-check
    server srv31-master 10.11.1.31:6443 check fall 3 rise 2
    server srv32-master 10.11.1.32:6443 check fall 3 rise 2
    server srv33-master 10.11.1.33:6443 check fall 3 rise 2

Configure DNS:

host kubelb.hl.test
kubelb.hl.test has address 10.11.1.30

Enable and start HAProxy service:

sudo systemctl enable --now haproxy

Initialise the control plane:

sudo kubeadm init \
  --control-plane-endpoint "kubelb.hl.test:6443" \
  --upload-certs

Join other control plane nodes to the cluster.

Workloads and Scheduling

Unless stated otherwise, all Kubernetes resources should be created in the cka namespace.

Understand deployments and how to perform rolling update and rollbacks

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/workloads/controllers/deployment/#rolling-back-a-deployment

Exercise 1: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a deployment object httpd-pii-demo consisting of 4 pods, each containing a single lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2 container. It should be able to run on control-plane nodes as well.
  2. Identify the update strategy employed by this deployment.
  3. Modify the update strategy so maxSurge is equal to 50% and maxUnavailable is equal to 50%.
  4. Perform a rolling update to this deployment so that the image gets updated to lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.3.
  5. Undo the most recent change.

Imperative commands:

kubectl create deploy httpd-pii-demo --image=lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2 --replicas=4 -n cka
kubectl describe deploy httpd-pii-demo -n cka
kubectl edit deploy httpd-pii-demo -n cka
kubectl set image deploy/httpd-pii-demo httpd-pii-demo=lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.3 -n cka
kubectl rollout undo deploy/httpd-pii-demo -n cka
kubectl rollout status deploy/httpd-pii-demo -n cka

Declarative YAML (updated):

---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  labels:
    app: httpd-pii-demo
  name: httpd-pii-demo
  namespace: cka
spec:
  replicas: 4
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: httpd-pii-demo
  strategy:
    rollingUpdate:
      maxSurge: 50%
      maxUnavailable: 50%
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: httpd-pii-demo
    spec:
      tolerations:
      - effect: NoSchedule
        key: node-role.kubernetes.io/control-plane
      containers:
      - image: lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2
        name: httpd-pii-demo

Docs:

Exercise 2: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a single pod httpd of image httpd:2.4. The container should be named webserver.
  2. This pod should only be scheduled on a control plane node.

Imperative commands:

kubectl run httpd --image=httpd:2.4 --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > httpd-control-plane.yaml

Edit the file httpd-control-plane.yaml and add tolerations and nodeSelector sections:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: httpd
  name: httpd
spec:
  containers:
  - image: httpd:2.4
    name: webserver
  restartPolicy: Always
  tolerations:
  - effect: NoSchedule
    key: node-role.kubernetes.io/control-plane
    operator: Exists
  nodeSelector:
    node-role.kubernetes.io/control-plane: ""

Deploy the pod:

kubectl apply -f ./httpd-control-plane.yaml

Use ConfigMaps and Secrets to configure applications

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/configure-pod-container/configure-pod-configmap/

Exercise 1: perform the following tasks to configure application to use a configmap.

  1. Create a configmap webapp-color that has the following key=value pair:
    • key = color
    • value = blue
  2. Create a pod webapp-color that uses kodekloud/webapp-color image.
  3. Configure the pod so that the underlying container has the environent variable APP_COLOR set to the value of the configmap.
  4. Check pod logs to ensure that the variable has been set correctly.

Imperative commands:

kubectl create cm webapp-color --from-literal=color=blue -n cka
kubectl run webapp-color --image=kodekloud/webapp-color \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > webapp-color.yaml

Edit the file webapp-color.yaml and add env section:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: webapp-color
  name: webapp-color
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: kodekloud/webapp-color
    name: webapp-color
    env:
      # Define the environment variable
      - name: APP_COLOR
        valueFrom:
          configMapKeyRef:
            # The ConfigMap containing the value you want to assign to APP_COLOR
            name: webapp-color
            # Specify the key associated with the value
            key: color

Deploy the pod and validate:

kubectl apply -f webapp-color.yml
kubectl logs webapp-color -n cka | grep "Color from environment variable"

Declarative YAML:

---
apiVersion: v1
data:
  color: blue
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
  name: webapp-color
  namespace: cka
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: webapp-color
  name: webapp-color
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: kodekloud/webapp-color
    name: webapp-color
    env:
      # Define the environment variable
      - name: APP_COLOR
        valueFrom:
          configMapKeyRef:
            # The ConfigMap containing the value you want to assign to APP_COLOR
            name: webapp-color
            # Specify the key associated with the value
            key: color

Exercise 2: perform the following tasks to configure application to use a configmap.

  1. Create a configmap grafana-ini that containes a file named grafana.ini with the following content:
[server]
  protocol = http
  http_port = 3000
  1. Create a pod grafana that uses grafana/grafana:9.3.1 image.
  2. Mount the configmap to the pod using /etc/grafana/grafana.ini as a mountPath and grafana.ini as a subPath.

Imperative commands:

cat > grafana.ini <<EOF
[server]
  protocol = http
  http_port = 3000
EOF

kubectl create configmap grafana-ini --from-file=grafana.ini -n cka

kubectl run grafana --image=grafana/grafana:9.3.1 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > grafana.yaml

Edit the file grafana.yaml and add volumes and volumeMounts sections:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: grafana
  name: grafana
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: grafana/grafana:9.3.1
    name: grafana
    volumeMounts:
      - name: grafana-config
        mountPath: /etc/grafana/grafana.ini
        subPath: grafana.ini
  volumes:
    - name: grafana-config
      configMap:
        # Provide the name of the ConfigMap containing the files you want
        # to add to the container
        name: grafana-ini

Deploy the pod and verify:

kubectl apply -f grafana.yml

kubectl exec grafana -n cka -- cat /etc/grafana/grafana.ini
[server]
  protocol = http
  http_port = 3000

Declarative YAML:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
  name: grafana-ini
  namespace: cka
data:
  grafana.ini: |
    [server]
      protocol = http
      http_port = 3000
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: grafana
  name: grafana
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: grafana/grafana:9.3.1
    name: grafana
    volumeMounts:
      - name: grafana-config
        mountPath: /etc/grafana/grafana.ini
  volumes:
    - name: grafana-config
      configMap:
        # Provide the name of the ConfigMap containing the files you want
        # to add to the container
        name: grafana-ini

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/configuration/secret/#using-secrets-as-environment-variables

Exercise 3: perform the following tasks to configure application to use a secret.

  1. Create a secret mysql-credentials that has the following key=value pairs:
    • mysql_root_password = Mysql5.7RootPassword
    • mysql_username = dbadmin
    • mysql_password = Mysql5.7UserPassword
  2. Create a pod mysql-pod-secret that uses mysql:5.7 image.
  3. Configure the pod so that the underlying container has the following environment variables set:
    • MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD from secret key mysql_root_password
    • MYSQL_USER from secret key mysql_username
    • MYSQL_PASSWORD from secret key mysql_password
  4. Exec a command in the container to show that it has the configured environment variable.

Imperative commands:

kubectl create secret generic mysql-credentials \
  --from-literal=mysql_root_password="Mysql5.7RootPassword" \
  --from-literal=mysql_username=dbadmin \
  --from-literal=mysql_password="Mysql5.7UserPassword" \
  -n cka

kubectl run mysql-pod-secret --image=mysql:5.7 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > mysql-pod-secret.yaml

Edit the file mysql-pod-secret.yaml and add env section:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: mysql-pod-secret
  name: mysql-pod-secret
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: mysql:5.7
    name: mysql-pod-secret
    env:
      - name: MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD
        valueFrom:
          secretKeyRef:
            name: mysql-credentials
            key: mysql_root_password
      - name: MYSQL_USER
        valueFrom:
          secretKeyRef:
            name: mysql-credentials
            key: mysql_username
      - name: MYSQL_PASSWORD
        valueFrom:
          secretKeyRef:
            name: mysql-credentials
            key: mysql_password

Deploy the pod and validate:

kubectl apply -f mysql-pod-secret.yaml
kubectl exec mysql-pod-secret -n cka -- env | grep ^MYSQL
MYSQL_MAJOR=5.7
MYSQL_VERSION=5.7.37-1debian10
MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD=Mysql5.7RootPassword
MYSQL_USER=dbadmin
MYSQL_PASSWORD=Mysql5.7UserPassword

Declarative YAML:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Secret
metadata:
  name: mysql-credentials
  namespace: cka
data:
  mysql_password: TXlzcWw1LjdVc2VyUGFzc3dvcmQ=
  mysql_root_password: TXlzcWw1LjdSb290UGFzc3dvcmQ=
  mysql_username: ZGJhZG1pbg==
type: Opaque
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: mysql-pod-secret
  name: mysql-pod-secret
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: mysql:5.7
    name: mysql-pod-secret
    env:
      - name: MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD
        valueFrom:
          secretKeyRef:
            name: mysql-credentials
            key: mysql_root_password
      - name: MYSQL_USER
        valueFrom:
          secretKeyRef:
            name: mysql-credentials
            key: mysql_username
      - name: MYSQL_PASSWORD
        valueFrom:
          secretKeyRef:
            name: mysql-credentials
            key: mysql_password

Know how to scale applications

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/workloads/controllers/deployment/#scaling-a-deployment

Exercise: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a deployment object nginx-deployment consisting of 2 pods containing a single nginx:1.22 container.
  2. Increase the deployment size by adding 1 additional pod. Record the action.
  3. Decrease the deployment back to its original size of 2 pods. Record the action.

Imperative commands:

kubectl create deploy nginx-deployment --image=nginx:1.22 --replicas=2 -n cka
kubectl scale deploy nginx-deployment --replicas=3 --record -n cka
kubectl scale deploy nginx-deployment --replicas=2 --record -n cka

Declarative YAML (initial):

---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  labels:
    app: nginx-deployment
  name: nginx-deployment
  namespace: cka
spec:
  replicas: 2
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: nginx-deployment
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: nginx-deployment
    spec:
      containers:
      - image: nginx:1.22
        name: nginx

Declarative YAML (updated):

---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  labels:
    app: nginx-deployment
  name: nginx-deployment
  namespace: cka
spec:
  replicas: 3
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: nginx-deployment
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: nginx-deployment
    spec:
      containers:
      - image: nginx:1.22
        name: nginx

Understand the primitives used to create robust, self-healing, application deployments

Docs:

Exercise 1: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a pod httpd-liveness-readiness that uses lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 image.
  2. Configure both liveness and readiness probes for a TCP check on port 10001.
  3. Set initialDelaySeconds to 5. The probe should be performed every 10 seconds.

Imperative commands:

kubectl run httpd-liveness-readiness --image=lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > httpd-liveness-readiness.yaml

Edit the file httpd-liveness-readiness.yaml and add probes:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: httpd-liveness-readiness
  name: httpd-liveness-readiness
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0
    name: httpd-liveness-readiness
    readinessProbe:
      tcpSocket:
        port: 10001
      initialDelaySeconds: 5
      periodSeconds: 10
    livenessProbe:
      tcpSocket:
        port: 10001
      initialDelaySeconds: 5
      periodSeconds: 10

Deploy the pod:

kubectl apply -f httpd-liveness-readiness.yaml

Verify:

kubectl describe po/httpd-liveness-readiness -n cka | grep tcp
    Liveness:       tcp-socket :10001 delay=5s timeout=1s period=10s #success=1 #failure=3
    Readiness:      tcp-socket :10001 delay=5s timeout=1s period=10s #success=1 #failure=3

Exercise 2: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a pod called multi-container that has the following:
    • A container named blue with lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2 image.
    • A container named healthcheck with lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 image.
    • An initContainer named busybox with busybox:1.35.0 image. Container runs the following command: echo FIRST.

Imperative commands:

kubectl run multi-container --image=lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > multi-container.yaml

Edit the file multi-container.yaml and add containers.

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: multi-container
  name: multi-container
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2
    name: blue
  - image: lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0
    name: healthcheck
  initContainers:
  - name: busybox
    image: busybox:1.35.0
    command: ['sh', '-c', 'echo FIRSH']

Deploy the pod and verify that 2 containers are running:

kubectl apply -f multi-container.yaml

kubectl get po/multi-container -n cka
NAME              READY   STATUS    RESTARTS   AGE
multi-container   2/2     Running   0          11s

Understand how resource limits can affect Pod scheduling

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/configuration/manage-resources-containers/#example-1

Exercise 1: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a pod httpd-healthcheck that uses lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 image.
  2. Set the pod memory request to 40Mi and memory limit to 128Mi.

Imperative commands:

kubectl run httpd-healthcheck --image=lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > httpd-healthcheck.yaml

Edit the file httpd-healthcheck.yaml and add resources section:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: httpd-healthcheck
  name: httpd-healthcheck
spec:
  containers:
  - image: lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0
    name: httpd-healthcheck
    resources:
      requests:
        memory: 40Mi
      limits:
        memory: 128Mi

Deploy the pod:

kubectl apply -f httpd-healthcheck.yaml

Verify:

kubectl describe po/httpd-healthcheck -n cka | grep -B1 memory
    Limits:
      memory:  128M
    Requests:
      memory:     40M

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/policy/limit-range/

Exercise 2: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a namespace cka-memlimit with a container memory limit of 30Mi.
  2. Create a pod httpd-healthcheck-memlimit that uses lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 image in the cka-memlimit namespace, and set the pod memory request to 100Mi.
  3. Observe the error.

Imperative commands:

kubectl create ns cka-memlimit

cat > cka-memlimit.yaml <<EOF
apiVersion: v1
kind: LimitRange
metadata:
  name: cka-memlimit
  namespace: cka-memlimit
spec:
  limits:
  - max:
      memory: 30Mi
    type: Container
EOF

kubectl apply -f cka-memlimit.yaml

kubectl run httpd-healthcheck-memlimit --image=lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka-memlimit > httpd-healthcheck-memlimit.yaml

Edit the file httpd-healthcheck-memlimit.yaml and add resources section:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: httpd-healthcheck-memlimit
  name: httpd-healthcheck-memlimit
  namespace: cka-memlimit
spec:
  containers:
  - image: lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0
    name: httpd-healthcheck-memlimit
    resources:
      requests:
        memory: 100Mi

Deploy the pod:

kubectl apply -f httpd-healthcheck-memlimit.yaml
The Pod "httpd-healthcheck-memlimit" is invalid: spec.containers[0].resources.requests: Invalid value: "100Mi": must be less than or equal to memory limit

Awareness of manifest management and common templating tools

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/blog/2016/10/helm-charts-making-it-simple-to-package-and-deploy-apps-on-kubernetes/

Helm is the package manager (analogous to yum and apt) and Charts are packages (analogous to debs and rpms).

Services and Networking

Unless stated otherwise, all Kubernetes resources should be created in the cka namespace.

Understand host networking configuration on the cluster nodes

Doc: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/cluster-administration/networking/

Exercise 1: perform the following tasks.

  1. Change the Service CIDR to 10.112.0.0/12 for the cluster.
  2. Create a new service new-cluster-ip of type ClusterIP that exposes port 8080.
  3. Save the iptables rules of the control plane node for the created service new-cluster-ip to a file /tmp/iptables.txt.

Imperative commands. Check the cluster IP:

kubectl get svc/kubernetes
NAME         TYPE        CLUSTER-IP   EXTERNAL-IP   PORT(S)   AGE
kubernetes   ClusterIP   10.96.0.1    <none>        443/TCP   12d

Change the Service CIDR on the kube-apiserver:

sed -i 's/10.96.0.0/10.112.0.0/g' /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-apiserver.yaml

Give it a some time for the kube-apiserver to restart. Check the pod was restarted using crictl:

crictl ps | grep kube-controller-manager
a34270848373d  f40be0088a83e  About a minute ago  Running  kube-apiserver ...

Do the same for the controller manager:

sed -i 's/10.96.0.0/10.112.0.0/g' /etc/kubernetes/manifests/kube-controller-manager.yaml

Give it some time for the controller-manager to restart. Check the pod was restarted using crictl:

crictl ps | grep kube-controller-manager
e5666a46b88ac  b07520cd7ab76  46 seconds ago  Running  kube-controller-manager ...

Create a new service and verify its IP address:

kubectl create svc clusterip new-cluster-ip --tcp 8080

kubectl get svc/new-cluster-ip
NAME             TYPE        CLUSTER-IP       EXTERNAL-IP   PORT(S)    AGE
new-cluster-ip   ClusterIP   10.118.114.114   <none>        8080/TCP   7s

Kubernetes services are implemented using iptables rules on all nodes. Save firewall rules for the service:

iptables-save | grep new-cluster-ip > /tmp/iptables.txt

Understand connectivity between Pods

Doc: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/

Every Pod gets its own IP address. This means you do not need to explicitly create links between Pods and you almost never need to deal with mapping container ports to host ports.

Kubernetes imposes the following fundamental requirements on any networking implementation (barring any intentional network segmentation policies):

  • pods on a node can communicate with all pods on all nodes without NAT,
  • agents on a node (e.g. system daemons, kubelet) can communicate with all pods on that node.

Note: For those platforms that support Pods running in the host network (e.g. Linux):

  • pods in the host network of a node can communicate with all pods on all nodes without NAT.

Kubernetes IP addresses exist at the Pod scope - containers within a Pod share their network namespaces - including their IP address and MAC address. This means that containers within a Pod can all reach each other's ports on localhost. This also means that containers within a Pod must coordinate port usage, but this is no different from processes in a VM. This is called the "IP-per-pod" model.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/network-policies/

Exercise 1: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a pod httpd-netpol-blue that uses image lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2 and has a label of app=blue.
  2. Create a pod httpd-netpol-green that uses image lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.3 and has a label of app=green.
  3. Create a pod curl-netpol that uses image curlimages/curl:7.87.0 and has a label of app=admin. The pod should run the following command sleep 1800.
  4. Create a NetworkPolicy called netpol-blue-green.
  5. The policy should allow the busybox pod only to:
    • connect to httpd-netpol-blue pods on port 80.
  6. Use the app label of pods in your policy.

After implementation, connections from busybox pod to httpd-netpol-green pod on port 80 should no longer work.

Imperative commands. Create pods:

kubectl run httpd-netpol-blue --image="lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2" --labels=app=blue -n cka
kubectl run httpd-netpol-green --image="lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.3" --labels=app=green -n cka
kubectl run curl-netpol --image="curlimages/curl:7.87.0" --labels=app=admin -n cka -- sleep 1800

Get IP addresses of pods and test web access.

kubectl get po -o wide -n cka | awk '{ print $1" "$6 }'
NAME IP
curl-netpol 192.168.135.204
httpd-netpol-blue 192.168.137.36
httpd-netpol-green 192.168.137.40

kubectl -n cka exec curl-netpol -- curl -sI http://192.168.137.36
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 21 Feb 2022 01:05:37 GMT
Server: Apache/2.4.48 (Debian)
X-Powered-By: PHP/7.3.30
Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8

kubectl -n cka exec curl-netpol -- curl -sI http://192.168.137.40
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 21 Feb 2022 01:05:37 GMT
Server: Apache/2.4.48 (Debian)
X-Powered-By: PHP/7.3.30
Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8

Create a file netpol-blue-green.yaml with the following content:

---
apiVersion: networking.k8s.io/v1
kind: NetworkPolicy
metadata:
  name: netpol-blue-green
  namespace: cka
spec:
  podSelector:
    matchLabels:
      app: admin
  policyTypes:
    - Egress # policy is only about Egress
  egress:
    - to: # first condition "to"
      - podSelector:
          matchLabels:
            app: blue
      ports: # second condition "port"
      - protocol: TCP
        port: 80

Create the network policy and verify:

kubectl apply -f netpol-blue-green.yaml

kubectl get networkpolicy -n cka
NAME                POD-SELECTOR   AGE
netpol-blue-green   app=admin      29s

Test web access again:

kubectl -n cka exec curl-netpol -- curl -sI --max-time 5 http://192.168.137.36
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 21 Feb 2022 01:05:37 GMT
Server: Apache/2.4.48 (Debian)
X-Powered-By: PHP/7.3.30
Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8

kubectl -n cka exec curl-netpol -- curl -sI --max-time 5 http://192.168.137.40
command terminated with exit code 28

Declarative YAML:

---
apiVersion: networking.k8s.io/v1
kind: NetworkPolicy
metadata:
  name: netpol-blue-green
  namespace: cka
spec:
  podSelector:
    matchLabels:
      app: admin
  policyTypes:
    - Egress
  egress:
    - to:
      - podSelector:
          matchLabels:
            app: blue
      ports:
      - protocol: TCP
        port: 80
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    app: blue
  name: httpd-netpol-blue
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2
    name: httpd-netpol-blue
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    app: green
  name: httpd-netpol-green
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.3
    name: httpd-netpol-green
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    app: admin
  name: curl-netpol
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - args:
    - "sleep"
    - "1800"
    image: curlimages/curl:7.87.0
    name: curl-netpol

Understand ClusterIP, NodePort, LoadBalancer service types and endpoints

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/service/

Pods are nonpermanent resources. If you use a Deployment to run your app, it can create and destroy Pods dynamically. Each Pod gets its own IP address, however in a Deployment, the set of Pods running in one moment in time could be different from the set of Pods running that application a moment later.

A service is an abstraction which defines a logical set of Pods and a policy by which to access them. Types of services:

  • ClusterIP - exposes the Service on an internal IP in the cluster. Service only reachable from within the cluster.
  • NodePort - exposing services to external clients.E ach cluster node opens a port on the node itself (hence the name) and redirects traffic received on that port to the underlying service.
  • LoadBalancer - exposing services to external clients. A LoadBalancer service accessible through a dedicated load balancer, provisioned from the Cloud infrastructure Kubernetes is running on.

Exercise 1: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a pod httpd-healthcheck-nodeport that uses lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 image.
  2. Expose the pod's port 10001 through a service of type NodePort and set the node port to 30080.
  3. Get the index page through the NodePort using curl.

Imperative commands:

kubectl run httpd-healthcheck-nodeport --image=lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 -n cka

kubectl expose pod httpd-healthcheck-nodeport \
  --port=10001 \
  --target-port=10001 \
  --type=NodePort \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml \
  -n cka > httpd-healthcheck-nodeport.yaml

Edit the file httpd-healthcheck-nodeport.yaml and add the given node port:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
  labels:
    run: httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
  name: httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
  namespace: cka
spec:
  ports:
  - port: 10001
    protocol: TCP
    targetPort: 10001
    nodePort: 30080
  selector:
    run: httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
  type: NodePort

Deploy the service and verify:

kubectl apply -f httpd-healthcheck-nodeport.yaml

kubectl describe svc/httpd-healthcheck-nodeport -n cka
Name:                     httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
Namespace:                cka
Labels:                   run=httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
Annotations:              <none>
Selector:                 run=httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
Type:                     NodePort
IP Family Policy:         SingleStack
IP Families:              IPv4
IP:                       10.97.138.226
IPs:                      10.97.138.226
Port:                     <unset>  10001/TCP
TargetPort:               10001/TCP
NodePort:                 <unset>  30080/TCP
Endpoints:                10.244.1.48:10001
Session Affinity:         None
External Traffic Policy:  Cluster
Events:                   <none>

curl http://10.11.1.40:30080/
httpd-healthcheck

Declarative YAML:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
  name: httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0
    name: httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
  labels:
    run: httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
  name: httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
  namespace: cka
spec:
  ports:
  - port: 10001
    protocol: TCP
    targetPort: 10001
    nodePort: 30080
  selector:
    run: httpd-healthcheck-nodeport
  type: NodePort

Exercise 2: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a pod httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer that uses lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 image.
  2. Expose the pod's port 10001 through a service of type LoadBalancer.
  3. Verify that the service has an external IP pending.

Imperative commands:

kubectl run httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer --image=lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0 -n cka

kubectl expose pod httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer \
  --port=10001 --target-port=10001 --type=LoadBalancer -n cka

kubectl get svc/httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer -n cka
NAME                             TYPE           CLUSTER-IP      EXTERNAL-IP   PORT(S)           AGE
httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer   LoadBalancer   10.111.116.18   <pending>     10001:32465/TCP   68s

Declarative YAML:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  labels:
    run: httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer
  name: httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer
  namespace: cka
spec:
  containers:
  - image: lisenet/httpd-healthcheck:1.0.0
    name: httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
  labels:
    run: httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer
  name: httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer
  namespace: cka
spec:
  ports:
  - port: 10001
    protocol: TCP
    targetPort: 10001
  selector:
    run: httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer
  type: LoadBalancer

Exercise 3: perform the following tasks.

Imperative commands:

  1. Follow up from the previous exercise 2 and deploy MetalLB to the cluster.
  2. Verify that the service httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer has an external IP address assigned.
  3. Get the index page through the LoadBalancer service using curl.
kubectl create ns metallb-system

cat > metallb-configmap.yaml <<EOF
apiVersion: v1
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
  namespace: metallb-system
  name: config
data:
  config: |
    address-pools:
    - name: default
      protocol: layer2
      addresses:
      - 10.11.1.61-10.11.1.65
EOF

kubectl apply -f metallb-configmap.yaml
kubectl apply -f https://raw.githubusercontent.com/metallb/metallb/v0.11.0/manifests/metallb.yaml

kubectl get svc/httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer -n cka
NAME                             TYPE           CLUSTER-IP      EXTERNAL-IP   PORT(S)           AGE
httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer   LoadBalancer   10.111.116.18   10.11.1.61    10001:32465/TCP   10m

curl http://10.11.1.61:10001
httpd-healthcheck

Know how to use Ingress controllers and Ingress resources

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/ingress/

You must have an Ingress controller to satisfy an Ingress. Only creating an Ingress resource has no effect.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/services-networking/ingress-controllers/

Exercise: perform the following tasks.

  1. Make sure that you have MetalLB installed from the previous task.
  2. Create a deployment object httpd-pii-demo-blue containing a single lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2 container and expose its port 80 through a type LoadBalancer service.
  3. Create a deployment object httpd-pii-demo-green containing a single lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.3 container and expose its port 80 through a type LoadBalancer service.
  4. Deploy ingress-nginx controller.
  5. Create the ingress resource ingress-blue-green to make the applications available at /blue and /green on the Ingress service.

Imperative commands:

kubectl create deploy httpd-pii-demo-blue --image=lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.2 -n cka
kubectl expose deploy/httpd-pii-demo-blue --port=80 --target-port=80 --type=LoadBalancer -n cka

kubectl create deploy httpd-pii-demo-green --image=lisenet/httpd-pii-demo:0.3 -n cka
kubectl expose deploy/httpd-pii-demo-green --port=80 --target-port=80 --type=LoadBalancer -n cka

kubectl apply -f https://raw.githubusercontent.com/kubernetes/ingress-nginx/controller-v1.1.1/deploy/static/provider/cloud/deploy.yaml

kubectl get svc -n ingress-nginx
NAME                                 TYPE           CLUSTER-IP      EXTERNAL-IP   PORT(S)                      AGE
ingress-nginx-controller             LoadBalancer   10.107.59.72    10.11.1.62    80:30811/TCP,443:31972/TCP   51s
ingress-nginx-controller-admission   ClusterIP      10.100.251.17   <none>        443/TCP                      52s

Create a manifest file ingress-blue-green.yaml for an ingress resource:

---
apiVersion: networking.k8s.io/v1
kind: Ingress
metadata:
  name: ingress-blue-green
  annotations:
    nginx.ingress.kubernetes.io/rewrite-target: /
  namespace: cka
spec:
  ingressClassName: nginx
  rules:
  - http:
      paths:
      - path: /blue
        pathType: Prefix
        backend:
          service:
            name: httpd-pii-demo-blue
            port:
              number: 80
      - path: /green
        pathType: Prefix
        backend:
          service:
            name: httpd-pii-demo-green
            port:
              number: 80

Deploy ingress resource and verify:

kubectl apply -f ingress-blue-green.yaml

kubectl describe ingress/ingress-blue-green -n cka
Name:             ingress-blue-green
Namespace:        cka
Address:          10.11.1.62
Default backend:  default-http-backend:80 (<error: endpoints "default-http-backend" not found>)
Rules:
  Host        Path  Backends
  ----        ----  --------
  *           
              /blue    httpd-pii-demo-blue:80 (10.244.1.61:80)
              /green   httpd-pii-demo-green:80 (10.244.1.62:80)
Annotations:  nginx.ingress.kubernetes.io/rewrite-target: /
Events:
  Type    Reason  Age                From                      Message
  ----    ------  ----               ----                      -------
  Normal  Sync    12s (x2 over 33s)  nginx-ingress-controller  Scheduled for sync

Know how to configure and use CoreDNS

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/administer-cluster/dns-custom-nameservers/

As of Kubernetes v1.12, CoreDNS is the recommended DNS Server, replacing kube-dns.

Exercise: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a pod busybox that uses busybox image and run the following command sleep 7200.
  2. Exec a command in the container to show what nameservers have been configured in /etc/resolv.conf.
  3. Exec a command in the container to perform nslookup on service httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer.
  4. Verify that the IP address returned matches with the service IP reported by Kubernetes.
  5. Update coredns configmap to forward queries that are not within the cluster domain of Kubernetes to 10.11.1.2 and 10.11.1.3.
  6. Exec a command in the container to perform nslookup on service kubelb.hl.test.

Imperative commands:

kubectl -n cka run busybox --image=busybox -- sleep 7200

kubectl -n cka exec busybox  -- cat /etc/resolv.conf
search cka.svc.cluster.local svc.cluster.local cluster.local
nameserver 10.96.0.10
options ndots:5

Execute nslookup command and check with the service to make sure the IPs match.

kubectl -n cka exec busybox -- nslookup httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer
Server:		10.96.0.10
Address:	10.96.0.10:53

Name:	httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer.cka.svc.cluster.local
Address: 10.111.116.18
kubectl -n cka get svc/httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer
NAME                             TYPE           CLUSTER-IP      EXTERNAL-IP   PORT(S)           AGE
httpd-healthcheck-loadbalancer   LoadBalancer   10.111.116.18   10.11.1.61    10001:32465/TCP   11h

Update coredns configmap and delete pods to pick up changes:

kubectl edit cm/coredns -n kube-system

for i in $(kubectl get po -n kube-system -l k8s-app=kube-dns -o name); do
  kubectl delete ${i} -n kube-system;
done

kubectl get cm/coredns -o yaml -n kube-system
apiVersion: v1
data:
  Corefile: |
    .:53 {
        errors
        health {
           lameduck 5s
        }
        ready
        kubernetes cluster.local in-addr.arpa ip6.arpa {
           pods insecure
           fallthrough in-addr.arpa ip6.arpa
           ttl 30
        }
        prometheus :9153
        forward . 10.11.1.2 10.11.1.3 /etc/resolv.conf {
           max_concurrent 1000
        }
        cache 30
        loop
        reload
        loadbalance
    }
kind: ConfigMap
metadata:
  name: coredns
  namespace: kube-system

kubectl -n cka exec busybox -- nslookup kubelb.hl.test
Server:		10.96.0.10
Address:	10.96.0.10:53

Name:	kubelb.hl.test
Address: 10.11.1.30

Choose an appropriate container network interface plugin

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/cluster-administration/networking/

  • AWS VPC CNI offers integrated AWS Virtual Private Cloud (VPC) networking for Kubernetes clusters.
  • Calico is an open source networking and network security solution for containers, virtual machines, and native host-based workloads.
  • Flannel is a very simple overlay network that satisfies the Kubernetes requirements.
  • Weave Net is a resilient and simple to use network for Kubernetes and its hosted applications.

Storage

Unless stated otherwise, all Kubernetes resources should be created in the cka namespace.

Understand storage classes, persistent volumes

Docs:

Exercise: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a storageclass object named portworx-csi with the following specifications:
    • Provisioner is set to kubernetes.io/portworx-volume.
    • Reclaim policy is set to Delete.
    • Filesystem type fs is set to xfs.
    • Volume expansion is allowed.
  2. Create a persistentvolume named portworx-volume based on this storage class with the following specifications:
    • Storage class name is set to portworx-csi.
    • Access mode is set to ReadWriteOnce.
    • Storage capacity is set to 100Mi.
    • Persistent volume reclaim policy is set to Delete.
    • Volume mode is set to Filesystem.
  3. Note, the persistentvolume will not initialise unless Portworx integration is configured, but the goal here is to get the YAML right.

Imperative commands:

cat > storageclass.yaml <<EOF
---
apiVersion: storage.k8s.io/v1
kind: StorageClass
metadata:
  name: portworx-csi
provisioner: kubernetes.io/portworx-volume
parameters:
  fs: xfs
reclaimPolicy: Delete
allowVolumeExpansion: true
volumeBindingMode: Immediate
EOF

kubectl apply -f storageclass.yaml
kubectl get storageclass
NAME              PROVISIONER                     RECLAIMPOLICY   VOLUMEBINDINGMODE   ALLOWVOLUMEEXPANSION   AGE
portworx-csi      kubernetes.io/portworx-volume   Delete          Immediate           true                   5s
cat > persistentvolume.yaml <<EOF
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolume
metadata:
  name: portworx-volume
spec:
  capacity:
    storage: 100Mi
  volumeMode: Filesystem
  accessModes:
    - ReadWriteOnce
  persistentVolumeReclaimPolicy: Delete
  storageClassName: portworx-csi
EOF

kubectl apply -f persistentvolume.yaml

Understand volume mode, access modes and reclaim policies for volumes

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/storage/persistent-volumes/

Kubernetes supports two volumeModes of PersistentVolumes:

  • Filesystem - volume with is mounted into Pods into a directory.
  • Block - volume is presented into a Pod as a block device, without any filesystem on it.

Access modes:

  • ReadWriteOnce (RWO) - the volume can be mounted as read-write by a single node.
  • ReadOnlyMany (ROX) - the volume can be mounted as read-only by many nodes.
  • ReadWriteMany (RWX) - the volume can be mounted as read-write by many nodes.
  • ReadWriteOncePod (RWOP) - the volume can be mounted as read-write by a single Pod. Only supported for CSI volumes and Kubernetes version 1.22+.

Reclaim policies:

  • Retain - manual reclamation.
  • Recycle - basic scrub (rm -rf /thevolume/*). Currently, only NFS and HostPath support recycling.
  • Delete - associated storage asset such as AWS EBS volume is deleted.

Understand persistent volume claims primitive

A PersistentVolume is a piece of storage in the cluster that has been either provisioned by an administrator, or dynamically provisioned using Storage Classes.

A PersistentVolumeClaim is a request for storage by a user. For example, Pods consume node resources and PVCs consume PV resources. Pods can request specific levels of resources (CPU and Memory). Claims can request specific size and access modes.

Pods access storage by using the claim as a volume. Claims must exist in the same namespace as the Pod using the claim. The cluster finds the claim in the Pod's namespace and uses it to get the PersistentVolume backing the claim. The volume is then mounted to the host and into the Pod.

Know how to configure applications with persistent storage

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/concepts/storage/persistent-volumes/#claims-as-volumes

Exercise: perform the following tasks.

  1. Create a persistent volume named pv-httpd-webroot with the following specifications:
    • Storage class name is set to manual.
    • Access mode is set to ReadWriteMany.
    • Storage capacity is set to 64Mi.
    • Persistent volume reclaim policy is set to Retain.
    • Volume mode is set to Filesystem.
    • hostPath is set to /mnt/data.
  2. Create a persistent volume claim object pvc-httpd-webroot.
  3. Create a deployment object httpd-persistent consisting of 2 pods, each containing a single httpd:2.4 container.
  4. Configure deployment to use the persistent volume claim as a volume where mountPath is set to /usr/local/apache2/htdocs.
  5. Exec a command in either of the httpd containers and create a blank file /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/blank.html.
  6. Delete the deployment object httpd-persistent.
  7. Create the deployment object httpd-persistent again.
  8. Exec a command in either of the httpd containers to verify that the file /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/blank.html exists.

Imperative commands:

cat > pv-httpd-webroot.yaml <<EOF
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolume
metadata:
  name: pv-httpd-webroot
spec:
  capacity:
    storage: 64Mi
  volumeMode: Filesystem
  accessModes:
    - ReadWriteMany
  persistentVolumeReclaimPolicy: Retain
  storageClassName: manual
  hostPath:
    path: "/mnt/data"
EOF

kubectl apply -f pv-httpd-webroot.yaml
kubectl get pv
NAME               CAPACITY   ACCESS MODES   RECLAIM POLICY   STATUS      CLAIM   STORAGECLASS   REASON   AGE
pv-httpd-webroot   64Mi       RWX            Retain           Available           manual                  15s
cat > pvc-httpd-webroot.yaml <<EOF
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolumeClaim
metadata:
  name: pvc-httpd-webroot
  namespace: cka
spec:
  storageClassName: manual
  accessModes:
    - ReadWriteMany
  resources:
    requests:
      storage: 64Mi
EOF

kubectl apply -f pvc-httpd-webroot.yaml

kubectl get pvc -n cka
NAME                STATUS   VOLUME             CAPACITY   ACCESS MODES   STORAGECLASS   AGE
pvc-httpd-webroot   Bound    pv-httpd-webroot   64Mi       RWX            manual         8s
kubectl create deploy httpd-persistent \
  --image=httpd:2.4 --replicas=2 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > httpd-persistent.yaml

Edit the file httpd-persistent.yaml and add volumes and volumeMounts sections:

---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  labels:
    app: httpd-persistent
  name: httpd-persistent
  namespace: cka
spec:
  replicas: 2
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: httpd-persistent
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: httpd-persistent
    spec:
      containers:
      - image: httpd:2.4
        name: httpd
        volumeMounts:
          - mountPath: "/usr/local/apache2/htdocs"
            name: pvc-httpd-persistent
      volumes:
      - name: pvc-httpd-persistent
        persistentVolumeClaim:
          claimName: pvc-httpd-webroot

Create deployment:

kubectl apply -f httpd-persistent.yaml

Create a blank file:

kubectl -n cka exec $(k get po -n cka | grep httpd-persistent | cut -d" " -f1 | head -n1) -- touch /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/blank.html

Delete and re-create the deployment:

kubectl delete deploy/httpd-persistent -n cka
kubectl apply -f httpd-persistent.yaml

Verify the blank file exists:

kubectl -n cka exec $(k get po -n cka | grep httpd-persistent | cut -d" " -f1 | head -n1) -- ls /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/blank.html
/usr/local/apache2/htdocs/blank.html

Declarative YAML:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolume
metadata:
  name: pv-httpd-webroot
spec:
  capacity:
    storage: 64Mi
  volumeMode: Filesystem
  accessModes:
    - ReadWriteMany
  persistentVolumeReclaimPolicy: Retain
  storageClassName: manual
  hostPath:
    path: "/mnt/data"
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolumeClaim
metadata:
  name: pvc-httpd-webroot
  namespace: cka
spec:
  storageClassName: manual
  accessModes:
    - ReadWriteMany
  resources:
    requests:
      storage: 64Mi
---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  labels:
    app: httpd-persistent
  name: httpd-persistent
  namespace: cka
spec:
  replicas: 2
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: httpd-persistent
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: httpd-persistent
    spec:
      containers:
      - image: httpd:2.4
        name: httpd
        volumeMounts:
          - mountPath: "/usr/local/apache2/htdocs"
            name: pvc-httpd-persistent
      volumes:
      - name: pvc-httpd-persistent
        persistentVolumeClaim:
          claimName: pvc-httpd-webroot

Troubleshooting

Evaluate cluster and node logging

Display addresses of the master and services:

kubectl cluster-info

Show the latest events in the whole cluster, ordered by time (see kubectl cheatsheet documentation):

kubectl get events -A --sort-by=.metadata.creationTimestamp

Check the status of the nodes:

kubectl get nodes

Check the status of the Docker service:

systemctl status docker

View kubelet systemd service logs:

journalctl -u kubelet

Check etcd health and status:

sudo ETCDCTL_API=3 etcdctl \
  --endpoints=https://127.0.0.1:2379 \
  --cacert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt \
  --cert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.crt \
  --key=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.key \
    endpoint health
https://127.0.0.1:2379 is healthy: successfully committed proposal: took = 12.882378ms


sudo ETCDCTL_API=3 etcdctl \
  --endpoints=https://127.0.0.1:2379 \
  --cacert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt \
  --cert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.crt \
  --key=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.key \
    endpoint status
https://127.0.0.1:2379, 9dc11d4117b1b759, 3.5.5, 4.7 MB, true, 3, 561317

Understand how to monitor applications

Dump pod logs to stdout:

kubectl logs ${POD_NAME}

Dump pod logs for a deployment (single-container case):

kubectl logs deploy/${DEPLOYMENT_NAME}

Dump pod logs for a deployment (multi-container case):

kubectl logs deploy/${DEPLOYMENT_NAME} -c ${CONTAINER_NAME}

Manage container stdout and stderr logs

We can write container logs to a file. For example, get container ID of coredns:

sudo crictl ps --quiet --name coredns 
5582a4b80318a741ad0d9a05df6d235642e73a2e88ff53933c103ffd854c0069

Dump container logs to a file (both the standard output and standard error):

sudo crictl logs ${CONTAINER_ID} | tee /tmp/container.log 2>&1

Troubleshoot application failure

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/debug-application-cluster/debug-application/

Depends on the application. The first step in debugging a pod is taking a look at it. Check the current state of the pod and recent events with the following command:

kubectl describe pods ${POD_NAME}

Troubleshoot cluster component failure

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/debug-application-cluster/debug-cluster/

Check log files:

  • /var/log/kube-apiserver.log
  • /var/log/kube-scheduler.log
  • /var/log/kube-controller-manager.log
  • /var/log/kubelet.log
  • /var/log/kube-proxy.log

Troubleshoot networking

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tasks/debug-application-cluster/debug-service/

Run commands in a pod. The --rm parameter deletes the pod after it exits.

kubectl run busybox --image=busybox --rm --restart=Never -it sh

Now you can run things like nslookup, nc or telnet into Mordor.

Bonus Exercise: am I ready for the CKA exam?

If you can't solve this then you're likely not ready.

Bonus exercise: perform the following tasks to create a stateful application.

Docs: https://kubernetes.io/docs/tutorials/stateful-application/mysql-wordpress-persistent-volume/

  1. Create a namespace called cka. All resources should be created in this namespace.
  2. Create a new secret mysql-password that has the following key=value pair:
    • mysql_root_password = Mysql5.6Password
  3. Create a new PersistentVolume named pv-mysql.
    • Set capacity to 1Gi.
    • Set accessMode to ReadWriteOnce.
    • Set hostPath to /data_mysql.
    • Set persistentVolumeReclaimPolicy to Recycle.
    • The volume should have no storageClassName defined.
  4. Create a new PersistentVolumeClaim named pvc-mysql. It should request 1Gi storage, accessMode ReadWriteOnce and should not define a storageClassName. The PVC should bound to the PV correctly.
  5. Create a new StatefulSet named mysql.
    • Use container image mysql:5.6.
    • The container in the pod should runAsUser=65534 and runAsGroup=65534.
    • Mount the persistent volume at /var/lib/mysql.
    • There should be only 1 replica running.
    • Define initContainer called fix-permissions that uses image busybox:1.35.
    • The initContainer should runAsUser=0.
    • The initContainer should to mount the persistent volume and run the following command: ["sh", "-c", "chown -R 65534:65534 /var/lib/mysql"].
  6. Configure mysql stateful set deployment so that the underlying container has the following environment variables set:
    • MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD from secret key mysql_root_password.
  7. Create a new ClusterIP service named mysql which exposes mysql pods on port 3306.
  8. Create a new Deployment named wordpress.
    • Use container image wordpress:5.6-apache.
    • Use deployment strategy Recreate.
    • There should be 3 replicas created.
    • The pods should request 10m cpu and 64Mi memory.
    • The livenessProbe should perform an HTTP GET request to the path /readme.html and port 80 every 5 seconds.
    • Configure PodAntiAffinity to ensure that the scheduler does not co-locate replicas on a single node.
    • Pods of this deployment should be able to run on control-plane nodes as well, create the proper toleration.
  9. Configure wordpress deployment so that the underlying container has the following environment variables set:
    • WORDPRESS_DB_PASSWORD from secret key mysql_root_password.
    • WORDPRESS_DB_HOST set to value of mysql.
    • WORDPRESS_DB_USER set to value of root.
  10. Create a NodePort service named wordpress which exposes wordpress deployment on port 80 and connects to the container on port 80. The port on the node should be set to 31234.
  11. Create a NetworkPolicy called netpol-mysql. Use the app label of pods in your policy. The policy should allow the mysql-* pods to:
    • accept ingress traffic on port 3306 from wordpres-* pods only.
    • connect to IP block 10.0.0.0/8.
  12. Navigate your web browser to http://10.11.1.38:31234/ and take a moment to enjoy a brand new instance of WordPress on Kubernetes.
  13. Take a backup of etcd running on the control plane and save it on the control plane to /tmp/etcd-backup.db.
  14. Delete wordpress deployment configuration from the cluster. Verify that the application is no longer accessible.
  15. Restore etcd configuration from the backup file /tmp/etcd-backup.db. Confirm that the cluster is working and that all wordpress pods are back.

Imperative commands:

kubectl create ns cka

kubectl create secret generic mysql-password \
  --from-literal=mysql_root_password="Mysql5.6Password" -n cka

cat > pv-mysql.yaml <<EOF
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolume
metadata:
  name: pv-mysql
spec:
  capacity:
    storage: 1Gi
  volumeMode: Filesystem
  persistentVolumeReclaimPolicy: Recycle
  accessModes:
    - ReadWriteOnce
  hostPath:
    path: "/data_mysql"
EOF

cat > pvc-mysql.yaml <<EOF
---
apiVersion: v1
kind: PersistentVolumeClaim
metadata:
  name: pvc-mysql
  namespace: cka
spec:
  accessModes:
    - ReadWriteOnce
  volumeMode: Filesystem
  resources:
    requests:
      storage: 1Gi
EOF

kubectl apply -f pv-mysql.yaml
kubectl apply -f pvc-mysql.yaml

kubectl create deploy mysql --image=mysql:5.6 --replicas=1 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > deployment-mysql.yaml

Edit the file deployment-mysql.yaml, change Deployment to StatefulSet and add required configuration:

---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: StatefulSet
metadata:
  labels:
    app: mysql
  name: mysql
  namespace: cka
spec:
  replicas: 1
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: mysql
  serviceName: mysql
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: mysql
    spec:
      securityContext:
        runAsUser: 65534
        runAsGroup: 65534
      volumes:
      - name: pv-mysql
        persistentVolumeClaim:
          claimName: pvc-mysql
      initContainers:
        - name: fix-permissions
          image: busybox:1.35
          command: ["sh", "-c", "chown -R 65534:65534 /var/lib/mysql"]
          securityContext:
            runAsUser: 0
          volumeMounts:
            - mountPath: "/var/lib/mysql"
              name: pv-mysql
      containers:
      - image: mysql:5.6
        name: mysql
        volumeMounts:
        - mountPath: "/var/lib/mysql"
          name: pv-mysql
        env:
        - name: MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD
          valueFrom:
            secretKeyRef:
              name: mysql-password
              key: mysql_root_password

Create the deployment and verify mysql pod logs:

kubectl apply -f deployment-mysql.yaml

kubectl logs $(kubectl get po -n cka -l app=mysql -o name) -n cka | tail -n1
Version: '5.6.51'  socket: '/var/run/mysqld/mysqld.sock'  port: 3306  MySQL Community Server (GPL)

Create a service for mysql, which serves on port 3306:

kubectl create svc clusterip mysql --tcp=3306 -n cka

kubectl get svc -n cka
NAME    TYPE        CLUSTER-IP       EXTERNAL-IP   PORT(S)    AGE
mysql   ClusterIP   10.107.189.130   <none>        3306/TCP   111s

Create a deplopyment file for wordpress.

kubectl create deploy wordpress --image=wordpress:5.6-apache --replicas=3 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > deployment-wordpress.yaml

Edit the file deployment-wordpress.yaml and add required configuration:

---
apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  labels:
    app: wordpress
  name: wordpress
  namespace: cka
spec:
  replicas: 3
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: wordpress
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: wordpress
    strategy:
      type: Recreate
    spec:
      # The deployment has PodAntiAffinity configured to ensure
      # the scheduler does not co-locate replicas on a single node.
      affinity:
        podAntiAffinity:
          requiredDuringSchedulingIgnoredDuringExecution:
          - labelSelector:
              matchExpressions:
              - key: app
                operator: In
                values:
                - wordpress
            topologyKey: "kubernetes.io/hostname"
      # The following toleration "matches" the taint on the control-plane node, therefore
      # a pod with this toleration would be able to schedule onto control-plane.
      tolerations:
      - key: node-role.kubernetes.io/control-plane
        operator: Exists
        effect: NoSchedule
      containers:
      - image: wordpress:5.6-apache
        name: wordpress
        env:
        - name: WORDPRESS_DB_PASSWORD
          valueFrom:
            secretKeyRef:
              name: mysql-password
              key: mysql_root_password
        - name: WORDPRESS_DB_HOST
          value: mysql
        - name: WORDPRESS_DB_USER
          value: root
        resources:
          requests:
            cpu: 10m
            memory: 64Mi
        livenessProbe:
          httpGet:
            path: /readme.html
            port: 80
          periodSeconds: 5

Create the deployment and verify wordpress pod logs:

kubectl apply -f deployment-wordpress.yaml

kubectl logs $(kubectl get po -n cka -l app=wordpress -o name|head -n1) -n cka | grep WordPress
WordPress not found in /var/www/html - copying now...
Complete! WordPress has been successfully copied to /var/www/html

While the wordpress pods can run on both the worker and control-plane nodes because of tolerations, we only have one of each (single control-plane and single worker node), meaning that the 3rd replica of wordpress cannot be scheduled and will be in a pending state.

Create a service for wordpress, which serves on port 80 and connects to the containers on port 80:

kubectl expose deployment wordpress --type=NodePort --port=80 --target-port=80 \
  --dry-run=client -o yaml -n cka > service-wordpress.yaml

Edit the file service-wordpress.yaml and add nodePort:

---
apiVersion: v1
kind: Service
metadata:
  labels:
    app: wordpress
  name: wordpress
  namespace: cka
spec:
  ports:
  - port: 80
    protocol: TCP
    targetPort: 80
    nodePort: 31234
  selector:
    app: wordpress
  type: NodePort

Create the service and verify:

kubectl apply -f service-wordpress.yaml

kubectl get svc -n cka
NAME        TYPE        CLUSTER-IP       EXTERNAL-IP   PORT(S)        AGE
mysql       ClusterIP   10.107.189.130   <none>        3306/TCP       20m
wordpress   NodePort    10.110.61.109    <none>        80:31234/TCP   20m

Create a file netpol-wordpress.yaml that contains our network policy configuration:

cat > netpol-mysql.yaml <<EOF
---
apiVersion: networking.k8s.io/v1
kind: NetworkPolicy
metadata:
  name: netpol-mysql
  namespace: cka
spec:
  podSelector:
    matchLabels:
      app: mysql
  policyTypes:
    - Ingress
    - Egress
  ingress:
    - from:
      - podSelector:
          matchLabels:
            app: wordpress
      ports:
      - protocol: TCP
        port: 3306
  egress:
  - to:
    - ipBlock:
        cidr: 10.0.0.0/8
EOF

Deploy the network policy:

kubectl apply -f netpol-mysql.yaml

Now, navigate your browser to http://10.11.1.38:31234/ and enjoy a brand new instance of WordPress on Kubernetes.

Take an etcd snapshot on the control plane by specifying the endpoint and certificates:

sudo ETCDCTL_API=3 etcdctl \
  --endpoints=https://127.0.0.1:2379 \
  --cacert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt \
  --cert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.crt \
  --key=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.key \
  snapshot save /tmp/etcd-backup.db

Delete wordpress deployment:

kubectl delete deploy/wordpress -n cka

No wordpress pods should be present at this point.

Restore etcd configuration from the snapshot. On the control plane, identify the default data-dir:

sudo grep data-dir /etc/kubernetes/manifests/etcd.yaml
    - --data-dir=/var/lib/etcd

Stop all control plane components:

cd /etc/kubernetes/manifests/
sudo mv ./*yaml ../

Make sure that all control plane pods are NotReady:

sudo crictl pods | egrep "kube|etcd"

Restore the snapshot to directory /var/lib/etcd_backup:

sudo ETCDCTL_API=3 etcdctl \
  --endpoints=https://127.0.0.1:2379 \
  --cacert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/ca.crt \
  --cert=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.crt \
  --key=/etc/kubernetes/pki/etcd/server.key \
  --data-dir /var/lib/etcd_backup \
  snapshot restore /tmp/etcd-backup.db

Configure etcd to use the new directory /var/lib/etcd_backup:

sudo sed -i 's/\/var\/lib\/etcd/\/var\/lib\/etcd_backup/g' /etc/kubernetes/etcd.yaml

Start all control plane components:

cd /etc/kubernetes/manifests/
sudo mv ../*yaml ./

Give it some time (up to several minutes) for etcd to restart, and verify that wordpress pods are back.

kubectl get po -n cka
NAME                        READY   STATUS    RESTARTS   AGE
mysql-0                     1/1     Running   0          40m
wordpress-c7b5c7666-bntkc   1/1     Running   0          38s
wordpress-c7b5c7666-djrzl   0/1     Pending   0          38s
wordpress-c7b5c7666-lf6l7   1/1     Running   0          38s

For declarative YAML solution, see bonus-task-solution.yaml.